Ch-7 Social
Processes
Man plays many roles within
the society. He also performs many and varied social activities as per his
nature, needs and roles. While performing these social activities or social
actions he comes into contact with others. This contact or relationships with
other changes the action of the individual into interaction. The behavior of
each individual is affected by the behavior of others. This interaction is the
basis of social life. Interaction refers to an action done in response to
another action. Actions performed by a number of individuals are called
interaction.
Society is rooted in interactions.
Interaction is the basic ingredient of social relationships. The various social
processes are the forms of interaction. The process of interaction, contact, forming
and breaking down of relationships continuously occurs in society. Behavior
system grow out of interaction. Without interaction there would be no social
life.
As members of society
people have to act and behave in accordance with some specific manner. They
are always engaged in some sort of actions and interactions in the society.
When the actions of the individual or individuals are influenced by the actions
of other individual or individuals in a society and he in turn is exposed to
their action that is called social interaction.
But every action is not
social. When people and their attitudes are involved, the actions become
social. Social interaction is the foundation of every society. It is the key
factor in all social life. The very roots of society are based on social
interactions. Both society and culture are the products of social interaction.
Hence no society is possible without social interaction.
Social interaction refers
to the entire range of social relationships. It is the reciprocal influence
mutually exerted by humans through their stimulation and mutual response.
Social interaction takes place between (i) Individual and individual (ii)
Individual and group (iii) Group and group.
(1) According to Green,
“Social interaction is the mutual influences that individuals and groups have
on one another in their attempts to solve problems and in their striving
towards goals.”
(2) According to Eldredge
and Merril, “Social interaction is the general process whereby two or more
persons are in meaningful contact as a result of which their behavior is
modified, however slightly.”
(3) According to Dawson and
Gettys, “Social interaction is a process whereby men interpenetrate the minds
of each other”.
Social interaction has four
main aspects such as contact, communication, form and structure. Social
interaction only takes place within a social structure. Various social
processes are the forms of interaction. Social contact and communication are
two important prerequisites of social interaction.
(1) Social Contact:
Ordinarily coming together
of two individuals is contact. Kingsley Davis opines the form of contact becomes
social when the concerned people have some meaning in it and feeling of
communication. In other words it constitutes human contact and interaction.
According to Gillin and Gillin “Social contact is the first phase of
interaction”.
Social contacts are always
established through the medium of some sense organs. It is established through
the medium of radio, telephone etc. and is strengthened by physical contacts
like kissing, shaking of hands etc. Social contact can be positive as well as
negative. Positive social contact includes co-operation, accommodation and
assimilation while negative social contact includes hatred, jealousy and
conflict.
(2) Communication:
Communication is another
condition of interaction. Without communication there can be no contact. It is
another aspect of contact. In communication an individual assesses the thoughts
and feelings of another person and his behavior. The important means of
communication are the language, radio, T.V. newspaper, gestures etc. through
which social contact is established. The easiest way of communicating thoughts
and feeling is through language. Language communication may be oral or
written. But unwritten and unspoken communication is also possible through
signs and symbols.
Thus contact and communication
are necessary for social interaction.
The system of social
interaction is called social process. The fundamental ways in which people
establish social relationship and interact are called social process. It refers
to the repetitive forms of behavior which are commonly found in social life.
Social interaction normally occurs in the form of accommodation, assimilation,
cooperation, competition and conflict. These forms of social interaction are
also called as social processes.
These are the modes of social
interaction. In society individuals continuously come in contact with one
another. They cooperate and compete with each other for the realization of
their respective aims and struggle for their rights. Hence social processes
found continually in society.
There exists a very close
relationship between social interaction and social process. We can’t
understand one without help from the other. When social interaction through
repetition leads to a result it is called a social process.
(1) According to Maclver,
“Social Process is the manner in which the relations of the members of a group,
once bought together, acquire a distinctive character”.
(2) According to Gillin and
Gillin, “By social process we mean those ways of interacting which we can
observe when individuals and groups meet and establish system of relationships
of what happens when changes disturb already existing modes of life.”
(3) Horton and Hunt opinion
“The term social process refers to the repetitive form of behavior which is
commonly found in social life.”
(4) According to Morris
Ginsberg, “Social processes are the various modes of social interaction between
individuals or groups including co-operation and conflict, social
differentiation and integration, development, arrest and decay.”
Elements of Social Process:
Social Process has the
following essential elements.
(i) Sequence of events
(ii) Repetition of events
(iii) Relationship between
events
(iv) Continuity of events
(v) Special Social results
Classification of Social Process or Types:
Sociologists are not
unanimous regarding the classification types or forms of social processes. It
has been classified differently by different sociologists. Some sociologist
classified it into two types such as:
(i) Conjunctive social
process
(ii) Disjunctive social
process
E.A. Ross had prepared a
list of 38 kinds of social process.
Blackinar and Gillin
classified social processes into six categories.
Park and Burgess classified
it into four fundamental types of interaction such as competition, conflict,
accommodation and assimilation.
L. Von.Wiese and H. Buker
classified social processes into 650 types.
But inspite of all these
classifications social processes can broadly be categorized into two types such
as associative and dissociative process. Famous German Sociologist George
Simmel first discussed about these two processes.
However we will discuss
major types of social processes under two broad headings. They are:
(a) Associative process
(b) Dissociative process.
Associative processes are
also called the integrative or conjunctive social processes which are essential
for the integration and progress of the society. The major types of associative
processes are the following. Co-operation Accommodation Assimilation
Acculturation
Dissociative social
processes are also called the disintegrative or disjunctive social processes.
Although these processes hinder the growth and development of society, their
absence results in stagnation of society. Few important types or dissociative
processes are:
Competition
Conflict
Contravention
Differentiation
Let us discuss these processes briefly one by one:
Co-Operation:
Co-operation is the most
fundamental associative social process. The term “Co-operation” has been
derived from two Latin words: ‘Co’ means ‘together’ and ‘Operari’ meaning ‘to
work’. Hence cooperation means working together or joint activity for the
achievement of common goal or goals. So it is a process in which individuals or
groups work unitedly for the promotion of common goals or objectives. It is a
goal oriented social process. It is very important as the human society and its
development have been possible with co-operaticn.
Definitions:
Co-operation is clearly
defined by many scholars. Some of the definitions are given below:
(i) A.W. Green:
Co-operation is “the
continuous and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to
reach a goal that is commonly cherished.”
(ii) Fair Child:
“Co-operation is the
process by which the individuals or groups combine their effort, in a more or
less organised way, for the attainment of common objective.
(iii) Merrill and Eldrege:
“Co-operation is a form of
social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common
end.”
C.H. Cooley has summerised
co-operation in the following terms: “Co-operations arises when men see that
they have a common interest and have, at the same time, sufficient intelligence
and self control to seek this interest through united actions : Prescribed
unity of interest and the faculty of organization are the essential facts in
intelligent combination.”
It is evident from the
above definitions that co-operation is a process of social interaction in which
two or more individuals or groups combine their efforts to achieve certain
commons ends and objectives.
Ex:
(i) The Indians
irrespective of their caste, race, creed, religion etc. differences fought
against the British unitedly to achieve independence.
(ii) The Indian agriculture
is mainly based on the co-operative spirit of the farmers.
Conditions of Co-Operation:
The process of co-operation
involves two important elements. They are:
(a) Common end or purpose.
(b) Organised effort.
The achievement of common
end calls for the organised efforts of individuals or groups such efforts
should be preplanned and properly organised. It is not possible for people to
promote the process of co-operation without these two essential elements.
Characteristics of Co-Operation:
Followings are some of the
important characteristics of co- operation.
(a) Continuous Process:
It is a continuous process.
There is continuity in the collective efforts in Co-operation.
(b) Personal Process:
This is a process in which
the individuals and the groups personally meet and work together for a common
objective.
(c) Conscious Process:
In the process of
co-operation the organised individuals or the groups work together consciously.
(d) Universal Process:
Co-operation is also a
universal social process. Because it is found every where in all periods of
time.
(e) Common Ends:
Common end can be better
achieved by co-operation which is essential for the welfare of both individual
and society.
(f) Organised Efforts:
Co-operation is a process
of social interaction which is based on the organized efforts of individuals and
groups.
Type of Co- Operation:
Different Sociologists have
classified co- Operation in different some of the important types of co-
operation are the following.
Let us discuss these types
of co- operation one by one.
(a) Direct Co-operation:
In the process of
Co-operation when individuals and groups co-operate directly with each other,
that is called direct co-operation. There exists direct relationship among
individuals and the groups. It permits the people to do like things together
because the nature of work itself calls for the participation of men or groups
in a together situation. It brings social satisfaction. It makes the difficult
tasks easy.
Ex:
Travelling together,
playing together, worshipping together are few important examples of direct co-operation.
(b) Indirect Co-operation:
In the process of
co-operation when people do things individually and indirectly for the
achievement of common goal that is called indirect-co-operation. Here the goal
is one or common, but the individuals perform specialized function for its
attainment. This co-operation is based on the principles of division of labor
and specializations of functions. So in modern society indirect co-operation
plays important role as the present technological age requires specialization
of skills and functions.
Ex:
In a factory or industry
all the workers do separate job to produce common things. In an another
example, the construction of a building or house is possible as the carpenters,
plumbers and masons are engaged in different activities.
Classification given by A.
W. Green are the following.
(a) Primary Co-operation:
In this type of
co-operation there is an identity of interests but no self interest among those
who cooperate. Every member is conscious of the welfare of all. It owes its
origin to personal satisfaction. It is present in primary groups like family,
neighbourhood and children’s play group. Here there is an identity or ends of
interest and all the members in some way or the other, derive benefit from
primary co-operation.
(b) Secondary Co-operation:
This type of Co-operation
is found in the secondary groups. In these groups the individuals cooperate
with each other for the achievement of some self interest. This is the
characteristic feature of modern civilized society which are very much
witnessed in political, economic, religious, commercial, educational and other
groups. It does not provide equal benefit to all its members.
(c) Tertiary Co-operation:
Primary and secondary cooperation
is the characteristic of individual person while tertiary cooperation
characterizes the interaction among various social groups, large or small.
These groups make certain adjustment voluntarily with each other under certain
compelling circumstances. The attitude of groups co-operating with each other
are selfish and opportunistic in the extreme. For example, in an election when
two political parties co-operate with each other to defeat the rival party, it
is called tertiary co-operation.
Role and Importance of Co-operation:
Being a universal and
continuous social process, co-operation plays dominant role but it is very much
essential for the welfare of the society as well. So the role of co-operation
may be discussed from two angles. They are:
(a) From individual point
of view.
(b) From the point of view
of society.
Role of Co-operation from individual point of
view:
(1) Man can fulfill his
basic and fundamental needs such as food, clothing and shelter by co-operation.
It also fulfils many psychological needs of human beings.
(2) It is not possible for
individuals to reach his respective goals without the active co-operation of
other members in society.
(3) Co-operation is the
foundation on which our social life is built up. The existence of society and
the survival of human beings depend upon the co-operative spirit and mutual aid
of men and women.
(4) With the solid and
active co-operation of his fellow beings, man can lead a happy and comfortable
life.
Role of Co-operation from the point of view of
Society:
Co-operation is also equally
important from the social point of view.
(1) It helps society to
progress. Progress can be better achieved through united action. Progress in
science, technology, agriculture, industry, transport and communication etc.
has been possible with co-operation.
(2) It is the main spring
of collective life. It builds society, it conserves society. In a democratic
country, co-operation has become a necessary condition of collective life and
activities.
(3) It provides solution
for many international problems and disputes. Because co-operation as a process
of integration has the quality to bring end to different problems through
united activities.
(4) Progress is granted
permanence only by co-operation. Because conflict inspires the individual to
progress, but he does so only if he gets co-operation.
So it may be concluded that
co-operation is very indispensable for individual as well as social life.
Accommodation:
Accommodation is another
important associative social process. It is, infact a sort of co-operation
among people after their conflict comes to an end. Because conflict cannot
continue for an indefinite period. It must be resolved at some stage or other.
The end of conflict directs the way for accommodation.
The term accommodation refers
to understanding, adjustment or agreement. It is a process of getting along
inspite of differences. It is a way of inventing social environments which
helps people to work together whether they like it or not. It consists in the
avoiding and delaying of conflict with disagreeable circumstances. Here the
contending forces are adjusted to balance. It is the very foundation of a
social organisation. So without accommodation, society cannot maintain its
balance. Accommodation is a condition or state of mental and social
understanding. For example, the workers of an industry or a factory may go on
strike today for some reason but they are bound to come back to work tomorrow
after some settlement with the management. In an another example, the husband
and wife may quarrel for serious things at one time or another but most of the
times they live together with mutual love and affection.
Definition:
Some of the important
definitions of accommodation are given below.
(1) Maclver and Page define
that, “Accommodation refers particularly to the process in which man attains a
sense of harmony with his environment.”
(2) Ogburn and Nimkoff say
that, “Accommodation is a term used by the sociologists to describe the
adjustment of hostile individuals or groups.”
(3) According to Gillin and
Gillin, “Accommodation is the process by which competing and conflicting
individuals and groups adjust their relationship to each other in order to
overcome the difficulties which arise in competition, contravention or
conflict.”
(4) According to George A.
Lundberg, “Accommodation has been used to designate the adjustments which
people in groups move to relieve the fatigue and tensions of competition and
conflict.”
(5) In the opinion of
Biesanz, “In one sense, accommodation is the basis of all formal social
organization”
It is evident from the
above definitions that it is the basis of all formal social organizations.
Characteristics:
From the above definitions,
the following characteristics of accommodation may be pointed out.
(a) Universal Process:
It is found in all
societies at all time in all fields of social life. Since no society can
function smoothly in a state of perpetual conflict, accommodation becomes
necessary.
(b) Continuous Process:
This process is not limited
to any fixed social situation. It follows sooner or later as and when conflict
takes place. The continuity of accommodation does not break at all.
(c) Both conscious and unconscious
Process:
Accommodation is a
conscious process when the conflicting individuals or groups make efforts
consciously to get accommodated to situations. But accommodation is mainly an
unconscious activity.
(d) End-result of Conflict:
The hostile individuals or
groups realize the importance of accommodation only after they get involved in
some kind of conflict. If there is no conflict, there can be no question of
accommodation.
(e) It is a Mixture of love and
hatred:
According to Ogburn and
Nimkoff, accommodation is the combination of love and hatred. Love leads to
co-operation while hatred leads to conflict.
Forms or Methods of Accommodation:
Accommodation takes place
in different ways and accordingly assumes different
forms. Some of the important forms or methods of accommodation are:
(a) Yielding to Coercion:
Most of hostile individuals
or groups yield to physical or some kind of power exhibit the spirit of
accommodation in order to end a conflict. For example-the weaker party submits
to the stronger one out of fear and the stronger party can pressurise the weaker
party by its superior strength. For example, an act of this kind happens after
a war between two nations comes to an end.
(b) Compromise:
The conflict between the
hostile individuals or groups having equal strength comes to an end through
compromise in the process of accommodation. This is based on the principle of
give and take. Here the involved parties have to make some sacrifices
voluntarily for each other. So it is a kind of voluntary accommodation. When
the conflicting parties realise that the continuation of conflict would cause
sheer waste of their time, energy and money, they automatically want a kind of
accommodation which is called compromise.
(c) Tolerance:
Tolerance is a method of
accommodation in which two or more contesting parties tolerate each other with
sympathy and try to understand the view point of others. They patiently bear
the differences that exist between them. For example, the co- existence of
Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs etc. in Indian society is due to the method
of tolerance. This is the best form of accommodation.
(d) Arbitration:
When the hostile
individuals or groups have equal strength and are determined to stick to their
view point, there is intervention of third party, who acts as their arbitrator
or mediator. The decisions of the arbitrator are binding on the parties
concerned. For example, the conflict between the labour and management is
resolved through the arbitration or arbitrator.
(e) Conciliation:
This is another method of
accommodation in which the third party only gives some suggestions in order to
terminate a conflict. But the acceptance of these suggestions is not the
binding force. It is up to the discretion of the contending parties.
(f) Conversion:
This form of accommodation
involves a sudden rejection of one’s beliefs, convictions and loyalties and the
adoption of others. As a result of which the convincing party is likely to
accept the view points of other party. In consequence, the party which has been
convinced is quite likely to abandon its own ideas or beliefs or religion or
claims in preference for the view point of the other side with which it tries
to identify itself. For example- Ordinarily conversion is thought of only in
connection with religion.
(g) Sublimation:
This is a method which
involves the substitution of non-aggressive attitudes and activities for
aggressive ones. In this method the conflicting groups give vent to their
tendencies of aggression that is harmless to anyone else and also obviates
conflict. For example-Mahatma Gandhi conquered violence and hatred by love and
compassion.
(h) Rationalization:
In this method the
contending parties try to justify their action on the basis of some imaginary
ideas to avoid conflict. Hence, one blames others for one’s won fault. By
ascribing one’s failures to others instead of accepting one’s defects, one can
retain self respect. For example, sometimes the students believe that failure
in the examinations is due to the defects in the valuation of answer scripts;
they do not see the fact that their preparations for examinations are quite
inadequate.
Accommodation is a
significant integrative social process. It is not only useful to the
individuals or groups but also to the entire society.
(i) Society functions
smoothly with accommodation. It checks conflict and maintains co-operation
among the individuals and groups which is essential for social life.
(ii) It helps the
individuals and groups to adjust themselves to changed functions and statutes
which are brought about by changed conditions. It helps them to carry on their
life activities together even with conflicting interests.
(iii) The realisation of
people that they should lead a happy and comfortable life has become possible
only through accommodation.
(iv) It is the very
foundation of a social oganisation. Because it consists in the avoiding and
delaying of conflict with disagreeable circumstances. The contending forces are
adjusted to balance in this process. Hence, society maintains its balance.
Assimilation:
Another integrative or
associative social process is assimilation. It is also one form of social
adjustment. It is a process whereby persons and groups acquire the culture of
other group in which they come to live, by adopting its attitudes and values,
its patterns of thinking and behaving, in short, its way of life. It is more
permanent than accommodation. We reach this stage of assimilation only after
accommodation.
Assimilation makes the
dissimilar individuals or groups similar because it is a process by which individuals
or groups come to share the same sentiments and goals. For example, in India,
the religious tolerance among the different religious groups is the most
appropriate one as they have assimilated many points of each other’s culture
into their own and have made them integral part of their own social conduct.
Definition:
Some of the definitions
given by eminent scholars are the following:
(i) In the opinion of
Bogardus, “Assimilation is a process whereby attitudes of many persons are
united and thus develop into a united group.”
(ii) Ogburn and Nimkoff
defines assimilation, “As the process whereby individuals or groups once
dissimilar become similar, that is, become identified in their interest and
outlook.”
(iii) Biesanz and Biesanz
hold the view that, “Assimilation is the social process whereby individuals or
groups come to share the same sentiments and goals.”
(iv) Hurton and Hunt say
that, “The process of mutual cultural diffusion through which persons and
groups come to share a common culture is called assimilation.”
(v) In the words of Park
and Burgess, “Assimilation is a process of interpenetration and fusion in which
persons and groups acquire the memories, sentiments and attitudes of other
persons or groups and, by sharing their experience and history, are
incorporated into a common cultural life.”
From the above definitions
it may be concluded that assimilation takes place when individuals come into
close contact with other culture in a slow and gradual manner. It results in
the promotion of cultural unity which leads to social integration.
Characteristics:
From the above definitions
of assimilation the following characteristics have been pointed out. They are:
(i) Universal Process:
Assimilation as a process
of integration is present in every society, all the times. Hence universal in
nature.
(ii) Unconscious Process:
Usually the individuals or
groups involved in the process of assimilation are unconscious of what is
taking place. Unconsciously one assimilate himself with others.
(iii) Slow and Gradual Process:
The process of assimilation
cannot take place suddenly. Rather it takes time. It depends upon the nature of
contacts. If it is primary, assimilation is natural and rapid. If it is
secondary assimilation is slow.
(iv) It is a two-way Process:
It is based on the
principle of give and take. When one cultural group is in contact with another,
it borrows from it certain cultural elements and incorporates them into its own
culture. So it affects both.
(v) It is confined to multiple fields:
The process of assimilation
is not confined to a single field but it is confined to multiple fields. In the
religious field, for example, it may take place when an individual or a group
of individuals of a particular religious background get converted into some
other religious set or group.
Role and Importance of Assimilation:
(a) In this integrative
social process, the individuals or groups acquire the culture of other group in
which they come to live by adopting its pattern of thinking, behaving, its
attitudes and values.
(b) As assimilation is a
cultural and psychological process. It results in the promotion of cultural
units.
(c) It plays a very
significant role in the development of human personality.
(d) It brings similarity
among dissimilar individuals or groups.
(e) It brings change in old
culture, customs, traditions, folkways, mores, morals, law and religion etc.
Factors contributing towards assimilation or
Factors promoting assimilation:
There are some factors
which facilitate the process of assimilation are given below.
(i) Toleration:
When the people of one
culture tolerate the spread of another culture irrespective of their
differences toleration takes place. Here, people of different culture maintain
balance by developing contacts, by participating in common social and cultural
activities. So toleration is an essential condition for promoting assimilation
which is in turn helpful in unity and integrity of the community.
(ii) Intimacy:
The development of close
social relationship makes the process of assimilation natural and its degree
becomes high. But when social relationship is not so close and artificial, the
process becomes slow. So intimacy is another condition for assimilation.
(iii) Cultural Equality:
If there are striking
similarities between the cultures, then there is no bar for assimilation to
take place. When the degree of intimacy and toleration becomes high, it
facilitates the growth of this process.
(iv) Equal Economic Standard:
Difference in economic
standard hinders assimilation. But individuals or groups having equal economic
standard can easily establish intimacy which intern avoids jealousy, hatred and
conflict. Here assimilation progresses.
(v) Amalgamation:
When individuals or groups
come into close contact to one another, amalgamation takes place. For example,
the matrimonial relationship between the Hindus and Non- Hindus facilitate the
process of assimilation.
Factors hindering
assimilation or harmful to assimilation:
There are some factors
which are harmful to the growth of assimilation or the factors which obstruct
the process of assimilation. These factors are explained below.
(i) Isolation:
Individuals who live
separately or feel isolated cannot establish good social relationship with
others in the society. So due to lack of close or intimate relationship, the
process of assimilation is hampered or even it does not take place.
(ii) Cultural Differences:
Differences in culture also
hinder assimilation. The cultures having different religion, race, languages,
customs, traditions do not have close relationship with each other. If
assimilation takes place there, it is very difficult for its continuity.
(iii) Differences in economic standard:
Difference in economic
standard encourages the feeling of inferiority and superiority. There occurs
the feeling of high and low. People with the feeling of superiority decline to
establish social relations with those having a sense of inferiority. So
differences in economic standard stand as an obstruction in the process of
assimilation.
(iv) Physical Differences:
Differences in physical
characteristics like colour of the skin, growth of human body and other
physiological features act as hindrances to assimilation. For example, the differences
in the physical features of the black and white hinder assimilation among them.
(v) Domination and Sub-ordination:
Intimate social relation is
very much essential for assimilation. But assimilation is absent or is hampered
when one group dominates the other. It lacks social relationship.
Competition:
The most important
fundamental dissociative social process is competition. It is a form of
opposition or social struggle. It is a contest among individuals or groups to
acquire something which has limited supply or insufficient in quantity and not
easily available. It is characterized by non-co-operation. Here the competitors
forces their attention on the goal or the reward they are struggling to achieve
but not on themselves. They try to achieve the goal by methods other than force
or fraud.
Generally in our society
there is competition for getting jobs. The people who are already employed
desire for better jobs. There is no competition for sunshine, water, fresh air
etc. which are treated as the free gift of nature.
When there is a shift in
interest from the objects of competition to the competitors themselves, it is
called rivalry or personal competition. But when the individuals or groups
compete with each other, not on personal level but as members of group,
competition is impersonal.
Definition of Competition:
There are many definitions
of competition given by different scholars. Some of the important definitions
are given below:
Park and Burgess define
Competition as “an interaction without social contact.”
E.S. Bogardus define
Competition as “a contest to obtain something which does not exist in a
quantity sufficient to meet the demand.”
Majumdar says that
“Competition is the impersonalized struggle among resembling creatures for
goods and services which are scarce or limited in quantity.”
Horton and Hunt opine that,
“competition is the struggle for possession of rewards which are limited in
supply, goods, status, and power, love anything.”
H.P. Fairchild states that,
“Competition is the struggle for the use or possession of limited goods.”
From the above definitions
it may be concluded that competition is a process in which individuals or
groups try to obtain thing or things which have limited supply and which they
cannot achieve or share collectively.”
Features of Competition:
Competition as a disintegrative
social process has the following characteristic features:
(1) Universal Process:
It is the most universal
social process present in all societies, whether civilized or uncivilized,
rural or urban, traditional or modern in all periods of history and among all
classes of people like doctors, engineers, workers, students and farmers etc.
(2) Continuous Process:
Competition is a continuous
process as it never comes to an end. If one process of competition ends then
another process of competition stands there. The desire for status, power and
wealth in an ever increasing degree makes competition a continuous process.
(3) Unconscious Process:
The individuals or the
groups who are involved in the process of competition do not bother about
themselves but they are primarily concerned with the achievement of goal or
reward. Hence competition takes place on an unconscious level.
(4) Impersonal Process:
Those who take part in
competition do not know one another at all. They do not compete with each other
on personal level. They focus their attention on the goal or reward which they
are trying to achieve. They do not have any contact whatsoever. According to
Ogburn an Nimkoff, “Struggle is personal competition.”
(5) Always governed by norms:
Nowhere competition is unregulated.
It is always and everywhere governed by norms. Competitors are expected to use
fair means to achieve success.
Forms of Competition:
Competition as a universal
social process is found in all fields of social life. In our day to day life we
come across many types or forms of competitions. Some of the important
competitions are the following.
(i) Political Competition.
(ii) Social Competition.
(iii) Economic Competition.
(iv) Cultural Competition.
(v) Racial Competition.
(i) Political Competition:
This type of competition is
found in the political field. For example, during election each and every
political party competes for getting majority. This is not only found at
national level but at international level. Also there is keen competition between
nations who are wedded to different political ideologies.
(ii) Social Competition:
To get high social status
usually this social competition is mostly observed in open societies where
individual’s talent, capacity, ability as well as merit are given weightage.
(iii) Economic Competition:
In economic field economic
competition is fairly observed. It is the most vigorous form of competition. It
is reflected in the process of production, distribution and consumption of
goods. In the economic field men compete for salaries, jobs and promotions etc.
They generally compete for higher standard of living. This economic competition
is not only present at individual level but also at group level.
(iv) Cultural Competition:
Cultural competition is
present among different cultures. When two or more cultures try to show their
superiority over others, this type of competition takes place. Here arises
cultural diversities. For example, in the modern society there is cultural
competition between the Hindus and the Muslims. In the ancient period, there
was a strong competition between the cultures of Aryans and Non-Aryans.
(v) Racial Competition:
Like cultural competition,
racial competition is found among the major races of world. When one race tries
to establish its supremacy over other races, it gives birth to racial
competition. For example the competition between Negroes and the whites is the
bright example of racial competition.
Role and Importance of Competition:
Competition plays a
significant role not only in the life of persons but also for the groups and
societies. Some sociologists say that it is even more basic than the process of
co-operation. Hobbes had remarked that the struggle is the basic law of life.
Rousseau and Hegel also corroborated their views. Later on, in Darwin’s theory
of evolution, the principle of “Survival of the fittest” also stressed the
importance of competition in society. The importance of competition may be
discussed under two broad headings.
They are:
(a) Positive Role
(b) Negative Role.
(a) Positive Role:
It includes the positive
functions of competitions. They are:
(i) The role and status of
the individual members in the society is determined by competition. Thus it
assigns individuals their places in the social system.
(ii) It protects the
individuals from direct conflicts and provides a solution to the problem of
limited supply and unlimited demand of goods in a peaceful way.
(iii) It furnishes
motivation in the desire to excel or obtain recognition or to win an award.
(iv) Fair competition is
conducive to economic as well as social progress and even to general welfare as
it spurs individuals and groups or to put in their best efforts.
(v) It provides social
mobility to the individual members of the society. It helps them to improve
their social status.
(vi) The division of labor
and the entire complex economic organization in modern life are the products of
competition.
(b) Negative Role:
Apart from the positive
functions, competition also performs some negative functions.
(i) Unfair use of
competition causes a great deal of wastage in the economic field.
(ii) Sometimes competition
leads to exploitation when it is unrestricted.
(iii) Unhealthy competition
creates psychological and emotional disturbances which is harmful to the
society.
(iv) If competition becomes
uncontrolled it takes violent form, i.e. conflict.
So from the above
discussion we come to know that healthy and fair competition should be
encouraged instead of unfair and unrestricted competition.
Conflict:
Another significant dissociative
social process is conflict. It is an ever present process in human society.
Whenever a person or persons or groups seek to gain reward not by surpassing
other competitors but by preventing them from effective competition, conflict
takes place. In other words, it is a competition in its more hostile and
personal forms. It is a process of seeking to obtain rewards by eliminating or
weakening the competitors. It is seen that conflict makes an individual or
group try to frustrate the effort of another individual or group who are
seeking the same object. It implies a struggle or fight among individuals or
groups for a particular purpose or a number of purposes.
For example, the movements
like Civil Disobedience, Non- Co-operation and Satyagraha launched by Mahatma
Gandhi against the Britishers in India before Independence are conflict. Even
in today’s society conflict is found in every sphere like caste, religion,
language, culture and so on. Thus it is considered as a universal social
process.
Definitions:
Some of the important
definitions given by the sociologists are stated below:
Kingsley Davis defines
Conflict, “as a modified form of struggle.”
Maclver and Page state
that, “Social conflict included all activity in which men contend against one
another for any objective.”
A.W. Green says, “Conflict
is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or
others.”
Majumdar defines that,
“Conflict is an opposition or struggle involving an emotional attitude of
hostility as well as violent interference with autonomous choice.”
Gillin and Gillin state
that, “Conflict is the social process in which individuals or groups seek their
ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence.”
From the above definitions,
it is clear that individuals or groups involved in conflict try to oppose,
resist or coerce each other deliberately. It is the opposite of co-operation.
It is a process which leads two or more persons or groups to try to frustrate
the attempts of their opponents to attain certain objectives. Examples:
(i) The conflict between
nations leads to national conflict.
(ii) The conflict between
different political parties leads to political conflict.
(iii) Caste conflict, class
conflict and racial conflict etc.
Features of Conflict:
From the above definitions
the following characteristics may be noted.
(i) Universal Process:
Conflict is found in all
societies in all periods of time. The degree and the form of conflict may vary
from society to society and from time to time but it is present in all types of
societies.
(ii) Conscious Process:
This is a process in which
the conflicting parties are very much conscious in causing loss or injury to
persons or groups. They attempt to fight or oppose and defeat each other
consciously.
(iii) Personal Process:
The chief aim of conflict
is to cause harm or to bring loss to the opponents. The conflicting parties
personally know each other. So in this form of struggle to overcome the
opponents, the goal is temporarily relegated to a level of secondary
importance.
(iv) Intermittent Process:
Conflict is not as
continuous as competition. It is an intermittent process. It takes place
suddenly and comes to an end quickly. It never continues for ever due to the
occasional occurrence of conflict.
(v) Conflict is based on violence:
Sometimes conflict takes
the form of violence. Violence is harmful to the growth of the society and
retards the progress as it creates a number of problems.
If conflict occurs
non-violently, it maintains peace in the society which is helpful for its
development.
Causes of Conflict (Why
does conflict take Place?)
Conflict is a deliberate
process. It does not occur spontaneously. Although it is a universal social
process, its causes vary from individual to individual, group to group and from
time to time. It is caused not by single factor but by multiple factors.
The famous population list
Malthus says that it is caused by the means of subsistence increase in
arithmetical progression and increase of population in geometrical progression.
It implies that conflict arises only when the population of a country increases
and the means of livelihood decreases. It results in the scarcity of the means
of subsistence which leads to conflict.
Let us discuss some of the
important causes of conflict.
Types of Conflict:
Conflict is found in many
forms in all the societies. Some of the important classification of conflict
given by different scholars are the following.
(i) Classification of Maclver and Page:
According to Maclver and
Page there are mainly two types of conflict.
(a) Direct Conflict.
(b) Indirect Conflict.
(a) Direct Conflict:
In this type of conflict
the conflicting individuals or groups try to harm each other directly to attain
the goal or reward at the expense of their opponents even by going to the
extent of injuring or destroying their rivals. Direct conflict may be of two
types.
(i) Less Violent.
(ii) More Violent.
Sometimes direct conflict
takes less violent form. So it is less harmful. For example litigation,
propagandistic activities etc.
More violent form of direct
conflict is more harmful, for example war, riots, revolutions etc.
(b) Indirect Conflict:
When the conflicting
parties try to frustrate the efforts of their opponents indirectly it is called
indirect conflict. The keen competition among the parties automatically takes
the form of indirect conflict. For example, when two manufacturers go on
lowering the prices of their commodities till both of them are declared
insolvent is indirect conflict.
(ii) Classification of Gillin and Gillin:
Gillin and Gillin have
given five types of conflict. They are:
(a) Personal.
(b) Racial
(c) Political
(d) Class
(e) International.
(a) Personal conflict takes
place on personal level due to selfish nature of man. It takes place among the
members of the same group when there is clash in their aims and ideas. For
example, the conflict between two qualified persons for a common post.
(b) Racial conflict takes
place among different races of the World. Some of the races feel superior to
other races and some others feel inferior. So the feelings of superiority and
inferiority causes racial conflict. For example, the conflict between Whites
and Negroes.
(c) Political conflict is
found in the political field. When the different political leaders or the
political parties try to gain power in democratic countries it is called
political conflict.
(d) Class conflict is
present among the different classes of the society. Our modern society has been
characterized by classes which are based on power, income, education etc.
Although class is an open system conflict takes place among different classes
due to the difference in power, income, prestige etc. For example, the conflict
between the proletariat and bourgeoisie according to Karl Marx led to class
struggle.
(e) International conflict
takes place between different nations. When the nations try to achieve common
objective by suppressing each other international conflict takes place. For
example, the conflict between India and Pakistan regarding Kashmir Issue.
(iii) Classification of George Simmel:
According to George Simmel
there are four major forms of conflict. They are:
(a) War
(b) Feud
(c) Litigation
(d) Conflict of Impersonal
Ideals.
(a) War is a type of direct
conflict. When all the efforts of the different nations fail to resolve the
conflict, war takes place. This is the only solution to bring peace.
(b) Feud is another type of
conflict which takes place among the members of the society. So it is also
called intra-group conflict. It differs from society to society in degrees. It
is also sometimes referred as factional strife.
(c) Litigation is judicial
by nature. In order to redress the grievances and to get justice people take
the help of judiciary which is called litigation. For example, for a piece of
land when two farmers take the help of judiciary. Litigation takes place.
(d) Conflict of Impersonal
Ideals-when the individuals do not aim at achieving personal gain but for some
ideals it is called the conflict of impersonal ideals. Here every party tries
to justify the truthfulness of its own ideals. For example, when a political
party tries to show that its ideals are better than that of other political
parties. This conflict takes place.
Importance of Conflict:
Although conflict is a form
of struggle or fight, it is essential both for the individuals and society. It
performs both constructive as well as destructive functions. Conflict is
constructive in the sense when it is helpful in the smooth running of the
society. It is destructive when it hinders the peaceful atmosphere and retards
the progress of the society.
The chief functions of
conflict may be discussed under two broad headings. They are:
(i) Positive functions
(ii) Negative functions.
Positive Function:
The positive functions are
purely constructive in nature.
(a) Conflict increases
fellow feeling, brotherhood and social solidarity within groups and societies.
For example, inter-group conflict promotes intra-group co-operation.
(b) Conflict helps in the
exchange of cultural elements when comes to an end.
(c) It changes the status
of the group or society which comes to be regarded as super power.
(d) When conflict is over,
the parties give up old values and accept new ones. It brings changes in old
customs, traditions, folkways and mores.
(e) Sometimes conflict
helps in increasing the production which adds to the national income.
Negative Function:
The negative functions are
called the destructive functions. Some of the negative functions of conflict
are given below.
1. In the process of
conflict, the defeated party becomes psychologically and normally down.
2. Time, money and energy
of the conflicting parties get exhausted.
3. Uncontrolled conflict
brings violence which leads to destruction of lives and properties of the
countless individuals.
4. Social solidarity is
adversely affected by conflict. It hinders national integration.
5. Sometimes conflict leads
to inter-group tension and disrupts group unity.
6. Conflict diverts
members’ attention from group objectives.
From the above discussion
we come to know that conflict has both positive and negative importance. Its
positive functions are more important than the negative ones. Moreover,
conflict plays a very important role in consolidating a group internally.
