Social Institutions

Ch-6 Social Institutions

A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around the preservation of a basic societal value. Obviously, the sociologist does not define institutions in the same way as does the person on the street. Lay persons are likely to use the term "institution" very loosely, for churches, hospitals, jails, and many other things as institutions.

Functions of Social Institutions

i. Emotional Needs:

For satisfaction of needs like love, affection, hunger, fear, self-preservation, self-gratification, and fear of the supernatural.

ii. Economic Needs:

Satisfies the material needs of people and for satisfaction of basic necessities of food, clothing and shelter.

iii. Familial Needs:

Establishes the institution of marriage and family for the continuation of human species through structured means.

iv. Religious Needs:

Deals with man’s inherent fear of the supernatural. It deals with this fear through religious prayers and offerings.

v. Political Needs:

Deals with the basic necessity of governing large groups of people through formalized means of government and laws.

1. Institutions are important means, by which social behaviour can be regulated and controlled.

2. Institutions are instrumental in transmitting culture from one generation to another.

3. Institutions unite people and groups. They maintain unity and harmony in so­ciety by providing unified patterns of behaviour that is followed by all members despite diversities.

4. Institutions provide status to every individual. For instance, the status of married/unmarried, status of son/daughter or sibling, economic status and so on can come under this.

5. Not all the functions of institutions are positive. Certain aspects of institutions have a negative impact on the functioning of society. For example, the institu­tion of religion has led to religious fundamentalism, besides reinforcing reli­gious identities, that has resulted in conflicts and communalism.

In India, the caste system, which is a part of the Hindu religion, resulted in the emergence of untouchability. Similarly, marriage has resulted in the birth of social evil of dowry. Thus, institutions also have certain negative repercussions on society.

Social Structure

Ch-5 Social Structure

According to Radcliff-Brown social structure is a part of the social structure of all social relations of person to person. In the study of social structure the concrete reality with which we are concerned is the set of actually existing relations at a given moment of time which link together certain human beings.

A more general definition of social structure is that social structure refers to the enduring orderly and patterned relationships between the elements of a society. According to Raymond Firth it makes no distinction between the ephemeral and the most enduring elements in social activity and it makes it almost impossible to distinguish the idea of the structure of society from that of the totality of the society itself.

According to S.F Nadal structure refers to a definable articulation and ordered arrangement of parts. It is related to the outer aspect or the framework of society and is totally unconcerned with the functional aspect of society. So he has emphasized that the social structure refers to the network of social relationship which is created among the human beings when they interact with each other according to their statuses in accordance with the patterns of society. He has emphasized that the social structure refers to the network of social relationship which is created among the human beings when they interact with each other according to their statuses in accordance with the patterns of society.

According to Ginsberg the study of social structure is concerned with the principal form of social organization that is types of groups, associations and institutions and the complex of these which constitute societies.

According to Karl Mannheim social structure refers to the web of interacting social forces from which have arisen the various modes of observing and thinking. Social structure is an abstract and intangible phenomenon Individuals are the units of association and institutions are the units of social structure. These institutions and associations are inter-related in a particular arrangement and thus create the pattern of social structure. It refers to the external aspect of society which is relatively stable as compared to the functional or internal aspect of society. Social structure is a living structure which is created, maintained for a time and changes.

Elements of Social Structure

Normative system presents the society with the ideals and values. The people attach emotional importance to these norms. The institutions and associations are inter-related according to these norms. The individuals perform their roles in accordance with the accepted norms of society.

Position system refers to the statuses and roles of the individuals. The desires, aspirations and expectations of the individuals are varied, multiple and unlimited. So these can be fulfilled only if the members of the society are assigned different roles according to their capacities and capabilities. Actually the proper functioning of social structure depends upon proper assignments of roles and statues.

For the proper enforcement of norms, every society has a sanction system. The integration and coordination of the different parts of social structure depend upon conformity of social norms. The stability of a social structure depends upon the effectiveness of its sanction system.

The anticipated response system calls upon the individuals to participate in the social system. His preparation sets the social structure in motion. The successful working of social structure depends upon the realisation of his duties by the individuals and his efforts to fulfil these duties.

It is object of the goal to be arrived at by the social structure. The whole social structure revolves around it. The action is the root cause which weaves the web of social relationships and sets the social structure in motion.

Social structure is an abstract entity. Its parts are dynamic and constantly changing. They are spatially widespread and therefore difficult to see as wholes. Social structure denotes patterns which change more slowly than the particular personnel who constitute them.

Types of Social Structure

Universalistic –achievement pattern-This is the combination of the value patterns which sometimes opposed to the values of a social structure built mostly around kinship,community,class and race. Under this type of social structure, the choice of goal by the individual must be in accord with the universalistic values. His pursuits are defined by universalistic moral norms. Such a system is dynamically developing norms. Such a system is dynamically developing system with an encouragement for initiative.

Universalistic ascriptions pattern-under this type of social structure the elements of value-orientation are dominated by the elements of ascription. Therefore in such a social structure strong emphasis is laid on the status of the individual rather than on his specific achievements. The emphasis is on what an individual is rather than on what he has done. Status is ascribed to the group rather than to the individuals. The individual derives his status from his group. In this type of social structure all resources are mobilized in the interest of the collective ideal.

Particularistic-Achievement Pattern-This type combines achievement values with particularim.The primary criterion of valued achievement is found not in universalistic terms such as conformity to a generalized ideal or efficiency but these are focussed on certain points of reference within the relational system itself or are inherent in the situation. The emphasis on achievement leads to the conception of a proper pattern of adaption which is a product of human achievement and which are maintained by continuous efforts.

Particularistic-ascriptive pattern- In this type also the social structure is organized around the relational reference points notably those of kinship and local community but it differs from the particularistic achievement type in as much as the relational values are taken as given and passively adapted to rather than make for an actively organized system. The structure tends to be traditionalistic and emphasis is laid on its stability.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Relationship Between Man & Society

CH-4 Relationship Between Man & Society

Man is a social animal. He has a natural urge to live an associated life with others. By living with others he enjoys the fruits of common life. Man needs society for his very existence or survival. The human child depends on his parents and others for its survival and growth. The inherent capacities of the child can develop only in society.

Society provides a favourable atmosphere for the development of human personality. A rich and varied social life provides him with immense opportunities to be his best self. Again individuals depend upon society for the satisfaction of their innumerable wants. Society provides insurance or security against odds in life.

The individual falls back on his family and friends in times of difficulty and insecurity. Society is a store-house of knowledge and experience, and each individual benefits by the wisdom and experience of generations of human beings.

All this proves that man is by nature and necessity a social animal. He is intimately related to social life. The relationship between society and the individual is reciprocal and complementary. Society is composed of individuals and each individual is an inseparable part of the social whole.

A society refers to the whole and individuals represent only its parts. It is obvious that individual is both a social factor as well as a social product. Thus there is no antithesis or contradiction between society and individual.

Nevertheless there may be occasions of conflict and opposition between the society and the individual. There is controversy among scholars as to who should be sacrificed in such cases. One group of thinkers known as the socialists, collectivists, idealists and the organismic theorists maintain that society as a collective whole is bigger and greater than each individual.

The individual may be selfish or egoistic. He may ignore the social interest and pursue his self-interest. In such cases it is the duty of the individual to adjust him to society or else society would compel him to conform to the pattern of social life and code of conduct. The individual may be sacrificed for the common good of society.

On the other hand, a group of thinkers known as liberals and individualists put premium on the dignity and worth of each individual person and maintains that society exists for the individuals. It is a means to an end and not an end in itself. Society is an instrument to achieve and promote human happiness.

They demand ample freedom of thought and action for the individuals and attack any attempt by society and associations to limit or take away precious freedom.

Both views are one-sided and exaggerate both the importance and superiority of society or of the individual. They contain some element of truth, but not the whole of it. It may be said that the proper relation between society and the individual is reciprocal and complementary and not one of conflict and antagonism.

Herbert Spencer is an advocate of the organismic theory which compares the relationship between society and the individual with the relationship of body with that of its various parts. The body and its parts are interdependent. Neither can exist without the other. Likewise individuals are indispensable for the composition of society and society is essential for the very existence of the individuals.

The ultimate goal of society is to promote good and happy life for its individuals. It creates conditions and opportunities for the all round development of individual personality. Society ensures harmony and cooperation among individuals in spite of their occasional conflicts and tensions. If society helps the individuals in numerous ways, great men also contribute to society by their wisdom and experience.

Scientists, statesmen, reformers, philosophers, poets, artists, intellectuals etc., have made rich contribution to social Me. IC individual as, a social product benefits be the wisdom and experience of society, and he also contributes to this store house of knowledge and experience in whatever capacity he might be placed in society.

Thus society and individuals are bound by an intimate and harmonious bond and the conflicts between the two are apparent and momentary. In a well ordered society, there would be lasting harmony between the two.

Concepts of Sociology

CH-3 Concepts of Sociology

 

Comparison between Society and Community

Community	Society
Population is one of the most essential characteristicsof a community irrespective of the consideration whether people have or do not have conscious relations.	Population is important but here the population is conditioned by a feeling of oneness. Thus conscious relations are more important than the mere population for a society.
A community by nature is discrete as compared with society.	By nature and character society is abstract.
For community area or locality is very essential and that perhaps is the reason that the community had a definite shape.	Society is area less and shapeless and for a society area is no consideration.
A community has comparatively narrow scope of community sentiments and as such it cannot have wide heterogeneity.	A society has heterogeneity and because of its wide scope and field can embrace people having different conflicts.
The scope of community is narrow than that of society because community came much later than the society. Though the primitive people might not have understood the importance of community but they realized that of the society and lived in it.	The society has much wider scope as compared with the community.
In a community every effort is made to avoid differences or conflicts and to bring likeness as nearly as possible because cooperation and conflicts cannot exist in a community.	In a society likeness and conflict can exist side by side andin fact the scope of society is so vast that there is every possibility of adjustment.

Association

Men have diverse needs, desires and interests which demand satisfaction. There are three ways of fulfilling these needs. Firstly they may act independently each in his own way without caring for others. This is unsocial with limitations. Secondly men may seek their ends through conflicts with one another. Finally men may try to fulfill their ends through cooperation and mutual assistance. This cooperation has a reference to association.

When a group or collection of individuals organize themselves expressly for the purpose of pursuing certain of its interests together on a cooperative pursuit an association is said to be born. According to Morris Ginsberg an association is a group of social beings related to one another by the fact that they possess or have instituted in common an organization with a view to securing a specific end or specific ends. The associations may be found in different fields. No single association can satisfy all the interests of the individual or individuals. Since Man has many interests, he organizes various associations for the purpose of fulfilling varied interests. He may belong to more than one organization.

Social Institutions

A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around the preservation of a basic societal value. Obviously, the sociologist does not define institutions in the same way as does the person on the street. Lay persons are likely to use the term "institution" very loosely, for churches, hospitals, jails, and many other things as institutions.

Social Systems

A social system basically consists of two or more individuals interacting directly or indirectly in a bounded situation. There may be physical or territorial boundaries, but the fundamental sociological point of reference is that the individuals are oriented, in a whole sense, to a common focus or inter-related foci. Thus it is appropriate to regard such diverse sets of relationships as small groups, political parties and whole societies as social systems. Social systems are open systems, exchanging information with, frequently acting with reference to other systems. Modern conceptions of the term can be traced to the leading social analysts of the nineteenth century, notably Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim; each of whom elaborated in some form or other conceptions of the major units of social systems (mainly societies) and the relationships between such units- even though the expression social system was not a key one. Thus, in Marx's theory, the major units or components of the capitalist societies with which he was principally concerned were socio-economic classes, and the major relationships between classes involved economic and political power

Culture

The concept of culture was rigorously defined by E.B. Taylor in 1860s. According to him culture is the sum total of ideas, beliefs, values, material cultural equipments and non-material aspects which man makes as a member of society. Taylor's theme that culture is a result of human collectivity has been accepted by most anthropologists. Tylarian idea can be discerned in a modern definition of culture - culture is the man-made part of environment (M.J. Herskovits).

From this, it follows that culture and society are separable only at the analytical level: at the actual existential level, they can be understood as the two sides of the same coin. Culture, on one hand, is an outcome of society and, on the other hand, society is able to survive and perpetuate itself because of the existence of culture. Culture is an ally of man in the sense that it enhances man's adaptability to nature. It is because of the adaptive value of culture that Herskovits states that culture is a screen between man and nature. Culture is an instrument by which man exploits the environment and shapes it accordingly.

In showing affection, the Maori rub noses; the Australians rub faces; the Chinese place nose to cheeks; the Westerners kiss; some groups practice spitting on the beloved. Or, consider this; American men are permitted to laugh in public but not to cry; Iroquois men are permitted to do neither in public; Italian men are permitted to do both. Since this is true, physiological factors have little to do with when men laugh and cry and when they do not do either. The variability of the human experience simply cannot be explained by making reference to human biology, or to the climate and geography. Instead, we must consider culture as the fabric of human society.

Culture can be conceived as a continuous, cumulative reservoir containing both material and non-material elements that are socially transmitted from generation to generation. Culture is continuous because cultural patterns transcend years, reappearing in successive generations. Culture is cumulative because each generation contributes to the reservoir.

GAPS MODEL IN SERVICE QUALITY

GAPS MODEL IN SERVICE QUALITY

The Service Quality Model, also known as the GAP Model, was developed in 1985. It highlights the main requirements for delivering a high level of service quality by identifying five ‘gaps' that can lead to unsuccessful delivery of service.

Customers generally have a tendency to compare the service they 'experience' with the service they 'expect' to receive; thus, when the experience does not match the expectation, a gap arises.

GAP 1:

Gap between consumer expectation and management perception: This gap arises when the management or service provider does not correctly perceive what the customer wants or needs. For instance – hotel administrators may think guests want better food or in-house restaurant facilities, but guests may be more concerned with the responsiveness of the staff or the cleanliness of their rooms.

Factors that affect the size of the knowledge gap include:

Market research

Before introducing a new product or service into the market, a company must conduct market research to understand whether there would be any demand for the product, and what features should be incorporated. The better this process is conducted, the smaller the knowledge gap will be.

There are methods of ensuring that customer desires are taken on board. These include: comprehensive studies, gauging satisfaction after individual transactions (surveys immediately after a purchase is made), customer panels and interviews, and through customer complaints.

Communication channels

The fewer the layers between management and customer contact personnel, the more likely that customer preferences will be incorporated into higher-level decision making on the product.

 

GAP 2 :

Gap between management perception and service quality specification: This is when the management or service provider might correctly perceive what the customer wants, but may not set a performance standard. An example here would be that hospital administrators may tell the nurse to respond to a request ‘fast', but may not specify ‘how fast'.

Gap 3: between service quality specification and service delivery

This gap may arise through service personnel being poorly trained, incapable or unwilling to meet the set service standard. The possible major reasons for this gap are:

·         Deficiencies in human resource policies such as ineffective recruitment, role ambiguity, role conflict, improper evaluation and compensation system

·         Ineffective internal marketing

·         Failure to match demand and supply

·         Lack of proper customer education and training

Gap 4: between service delivery and external communication

Consumer expectations are highly influenced by statements made by company representatives and advertisements. The gap arises when these assumed expectations are not fulfilled at the time of delivery of the service. For example, the hospital printed on the brochure may have clean and furnished rooms, but in reality it may be poorly maintained, in which case the patients' expectations are not met. The discrepancy between actual service and the promised one may occur due to the following reasons:

·         Over-promising in external communication campaign

·         Failure to manage customer expectations

·         Failure to perform according to specifications

Gap 5: between expected service and experienced service

This gap arises when the consumer misinterprets the service quality. For example, a physician may keep visiting the patient to show and ensure care, but the patient may interpret this as an indication that something is really wrong.

Determinants

The ten determinants that may influence the appearance of a gap are:

1.      Competence is the possession of the required skills and knowledge to perform the service. For example, there may be competence in the knowledge and skill of contact personnel, knowledge and skill of operational support personnel and research capabilities of the organization.

2.      Courtesy is the consideration for the customer's property and a clean and neat appearance of contact personnel, manifesting as politeness, respect, and friendliness.

3.      Credibility includes factors such as trustworthiness, belief and honesty. It involves having the customer's best interests at prime position. It may be influenced by company name, company reputation and the personal characteristics of the contact personnel.

4.      Security enables the customer to feel free from danger, risk or doubt including physical safety, financial security and confidentiality.

5.      Access is approachability and ease of contact. For example, convenient office operation hours and locations.

6.      Communication means both informing customers in a language they are able to understand and also listening to customers. A company may need to adjust its language for the varying needs of its customers. Information might include for example, explanation of the service and its cost, the relationship between services and costs and assurances as to the way any problems are effectively managed.

7.      Knowing the customer means making an effort to understand the customer's individual needs, providing individualized attention, recognizing the customer when they arrive and so on. This in turn helps to delight the customers by rising above their expectations.

8.      Tangibles are the physical evidence of the service, for instance, the appearance of the physical facilities, tools and equipment used to provide the service; the appearance of personnel and communication materials and the presence of other customers in the service facility.

9.      Reliability is the ability to perform the promised service in a dependable and accurate manner. The service is performed correctly on the first occasion, the accounting is correct, records are up to date and schedules are kept.

10.  Responsiveness is the readiness and willingness of employees to help customers by providing prompt timely services, for example, mailing a transaction slip immediately or setting up appointments quickly.

Relationship Marketing

Relationship Marketing:-

Marketing activities that are aimed at developing and managing trusting and long-term relationships with larger customers.

In relationship marketing, customer profile, buying patterns, and history of contacts are maintained in a sales database, and an account executive is assigned to one or more major customers to fulfill their needs and maintain the relationship.

Reasons Why Relationship Marketing is Important

1. Build the Know, Like and Trust Factor

It’s a phrase you’ve heard countless times, but are you living it? [Tweet “”To know and to not yet do it, is to not yet know.” -Stephen R. Covey “]
To consider the importance of follow through with your know, like and trust factor, start by thinking about your own shopping habits, as a consumer. These days, online, will you buy from a complete stranger? Will you purchase something from a random website you’ve landed on? Will you hire a consultant, coach or assistant that you’ve never heard of, worked with or seen?
Chances are the answer is a big NO.
In today’s age of technology, we have the luxury of getting to know and deciding to trust the person or company behind each purchase.
However, as business owners, this means that we MUST go that extra mile to consistently create our know, like and trust factor.
To do this, it is important that we are consistently active on our social media platforms, website, and offline networking. For example, in social media, you want to welcome new followers, reply to comments using the commenter’s name, and create relevant content that is both educational and entertaining.
Moreover, test yourself! Ask a fellow entrepreneur to look at your social media postings and rate them for content, connection and consistency. The feedback can help you take your Know Like Trust Factor to a whole new level!

2. Word of Mouth Referrals

When it comes to owning your own business, word of mouth referrals are gold. And, when you focus on building your business’s people-to-people connection, you create that “WOW” factor that gets your customer’s talking.
Customers want to feel special and important, because they don’t often get to feel that way in other areas of the life. This is key to remember because customers rarely purchase products or services solely based on the products intended result. Deep down, they are also asking themselves, “What will this do for me, or provide for me?”
The answer isn’t just the product results. The answer includes all of the feelings and desires that come with that product and the results.
By building your relationship marketing skills, you fulfill those additional needs. You provide more than just a product or service, you provide an experience.
To create an experience, highlight your customer’s successes, answer questions promptly (whether through social media, email or phone), and respond to concerns instead of reacting to them. To respond to a concern means that you find a way answer the question that empowers your company AND the person making the concern.

3. Create Business Opportunities

When you build your relationship marketing skills, you also open the door to more business opportunities because a personal connection experience leaves a a long-lasting impression.
That fond memory which you created with your customer will cause you to come to their mind more quickly and frequently. Thus, when a friend of your customer asks for a business venture referral, your name will be on the tip of your customer’s tongue.
For example, Mari Smith’s early success in 2007 started because she was referred to test a new Facebook app. Because Mari had built a person-to-person connection, she was referred and her business took off.

4. Stay On Top Of Your Audience’s Needs

Following a relationship marketing model can be the difference between being a long-term success and a no-hit wonder!
With a person-to-person relationship marketing model you can learn first hand, and at no cost to you, what your audience MOST desires.
For example, free Wi-Fi in Starbucks was a suggestion from patrons. Today, because Starbucks listened, its shops are always packed with customers who know they can conduct business AND get great coffee.
On the other hand, Borders did not listen to its customers. The company did not make the necessary changes, improvements and additions to keep people coming back, and as a result, the company has now forever disappeared.
Active listening and listening between the lines are two amazing benefits of person-to-person relationship marketing that can easily get lost in the sea of business if you’re not paying attention.

5. Add Your Own Flare

In our new economy where JOB’s are unreliable, more and more people are going into business for themselves. In order to compete in this new booming, small business market, you have to STAND OUT. You need to have your own flare. Be unique.
By instating relationship marketing, you can quickly and easily develop your unique style. It gives you the space to learn about your audience’s needs, and develop trust with your own techniques. You don’t have to fit yourself to someone else’s business model. You simply have to be yourself and respond confidently to your customers.
Business has changed since social media has arrived on the scene. Businesses have to change their focus and concentrate on building relationships with people in order to empower their brand and build lasting relationships that will result in long term profits.

Service Differntiation

Service Differntiation

Differentiated service is a design pattern for business services and software, in which the service varies automatically according to the identity of the consumer and/or the context in which the service is used. Sometimes known as smart service or context-aware service.

The main factors which can be used for service differentiation are:

1. Ordering ease: Refers to how easy it is for you to place an order with the company. Baxter Healthcare has eased the ordering process by supplying hospitals with computer through which they send orders directly to Baxter; consumers can now order and receive groceries without going to the supermarket through web-based service such as peapod and net grocer. Thus these services have differentiated themselves through ease of ordering.

2. Delivery: It is related to how well the product or service is delivered to the customer, covering speed, accuracy and customer care. Deluxe check printer, inc., has built an impressive reputation for shipping out its checks one day after receiving an order- without being late once in 18 years.

3. Installation: refers to the work done to make a product operational in its planned location. Buyers of heavy equipment expect good installation service. Differentiation by installation is particularly important for companies that offer complex products such as computers.

4. Customer training: refers to how the customer’s employees are trained to use the vendor’s equipment properly and efficiently. General Electric not only sells installs expensive X-rays equipment in hospitals, but also gives extensive training to users of this equipment.

5. Customer consulting refers to data, information system and advising services that the seller offers to buyers. For example, the Rite aid drugstore chain’s communications program, called the Vitamin Institute, provide customers with research so they can make more educated judgments and fell comfortable asking for help. On the Web, Rite Aid has teamed with drugstore.com to offer even more health-related information.

6. Maintenance and repair: describes the service program for helping customers keep purchasing products in good working order, an important consideration for many products.

These are 6 steps to achieve service differentiation. Each of these steps can be seen implemented in leading service chains / companies.

Service Differntiation Strategies

1.Service Performance

If your business provides basic services to customers, promising and delivering consistently high-quality services can help you differentiate. A lawn care business could establish a quality service reputation if it consistently provides neat and detailed lawn mowing, trimming and edging services. A landscape business could do the same with a friendly and customer-oriented approach and top quality designs and project completions that leave customers feeling satisfied.

2.Service Experience

In some cases, businesses provide the tools and means by which customers apply or use services on their own. Internet service providers provide the technology and means for customers to access the Web, for instance. To promote quality differentiation, an ISP might emphasize low amounts of service downtime and access to fast broadband speeds. Essentially, the quality in this type of service arrangement is the ease of use, consistency and overall value the customer derives from his use of the service.

3.Service Resolution

Service resolution is also critical to success in service quality differentiation. Any type of business, whether product- or service-oriented, can differentiate itself with elite performance in service resolution. This involves carrying out the steps necessary to resolve customer problems or fix product or service errors. Companies that succeed in service differentiation typically have well-trained service employees who follow basic steps to listen to customer problems, work toward a satisfactory resolution and follow up to ensure the customer is happy with the outcome.

4.Challenges

Service quality differentiation is typically more challenging than product differentiation, largely because services are performed by people. Whether proactively delivering services or responding to customer complaints, it takes consistent performance from employees to make service differentiation work. Finding talented employees and training them is one step. However, employees are human, and the events of their personal and professional lives can get in the way of consistently optimum service performance.